Misconceptions and issues regarding allometric scaling during the drug development process

Introduction: Allometry is the study of size and its consequences. The simple hypothesis of allometric scaling is that all physiological parameters are proportional to body size or body mass. This review examines the development of theory-based allometry or fixed exponents (0.75 and 1.0 for basal metabolic rate and volume, respectively) and the evidence for or against the theory. The main focus of this report is to show the readers that there is enough evidence from experimental data that negate the concept of theory-based allometry in biology, physiology, and pharmacokinetics.

Areas covered: In this review, the history of the development of theoretical allometry and the strong evidence against theory-based allometry demonstrated by experimental data is provided. During drug development, allometry is applied to both inter-species (from animals to humans) and intra-species (adults to children) scaling. These two forms of allometric scaling in the context of theory-based allometry are discussed and provide insight on scientific progress that refute theory-based allometry.

Expert opinion: Theory-based allometry is a mere theory and experimental data and real-life observations strongly negate the existence of such a theory. Pharmacostatistical and physiological models based on theory-based allometry can be misleading and incorrect because the theory-based allometric exponent 0.75 is not universal. The exponents of allometry are data dependent and are not fixed in the universe.     

新疆规模羊场萨福克与湖羊杂交应用试验

为建立适应新疆规模化羊场的杂交生产体系,提高种羊利用率及当地绵羊的生产性能,以萨福克羊为父本、湖羊为母本,在规模羊场开展杂交应用试验。以出生日龄相近的萨湖F1为试验组,湖羊羔羊为对照组,测定初生重、2月龄重、4月龄重、6月龄体重、6月龄体尺等生长指标及宰前活重、胴体重、净肉重、屠宰率和净肉率等屠宰性能指标。结果表明,萨湖F1羔羊的2月龄重、4月龄重、6月龄体重及日增重显著高于湖羊F1羔羊(P0.05),6月龄萨湖F1羔羊平均宰前活重、胴体重、净肉重、屠宰率及净肉率显著高于湖羊F1羔羊(P0.05)。利用萨福克杂交改良规模羊场湖羊,可以显著提高羔羊的生长发育,杂种优势显著。     

Genetic analysis of cercarial emergence rhythms ofSchistosoma mansoni

Using two chronobiological variants ofSchistosoma mansoni (a blood fluke infecting man) from Guadeloupe (French West Indies), we carried out experimental crossbreeding between schistosomes with an early and those with a late cercarial shedding pattern. The results obtained on the F₁ (intermediate shedding patterns) and F₂ generations (early, intermediate, and late patterns) demonstrate that the cercarial emergence rhythms of schistosomes are genetically determined. This genetic variability is interpreted as a consequence of the selective pressure exerted by the two different hosts (man and rat) implicated in the life cycle ofS. mansoni from the Guadeloupean focus of schistosomiasis.This work received financial support from the UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases and the CNRS.     

雌二醇在人、比格犬和大鼠的肝微粒体中体外代谢比较研究

采用体外肝微粒体孵育体系, 研究雌二醇在大鼠、比格犬和人肝微粒体中酶代谢动力学及代谢产物差异。通过对雌二醇浓度、肝微粒体蛋白含量和孵育时间等条件的考察, 优化雌二醇与肝微粒体的反应体系; 应用LC-MS/MS定量检测孵育体系中的雌二醇及代谢产物, 分析比较雌二醇在3个种属、不同性别肝微粒体中代谢产物种类和生成量的差异, 计算并比较相应的动力学参数。在3个种属肝微粒体中均发现9个I相代谢产物, 且百分比有种属差异。结果表明, 3个种属的肝微粒体对雌二醇I相代谢途径基本相同, 但是代谢产物的生成量及雌二醇的药物代谢动力学性质存在一定的差异。     

Linear Correlation of the Fraction of Oral Dose Absorbed of 64 Drugs Between Humans and Rats

Pharmaceutical Research -     

Genetics of spike-wave discharges in the electroencephalogram (EEG) of the WAG/Rij inbred rat strain: A classical mendelian crossbreeding study

The WAG inbred strain might be an animal model for human absence epilepsy. To study the inheritance pattern of absence epilepsy, WAG rats were crossbred, in a classical Mendelian way, with inbred ACI rats which show no signs of epilepsy. In the parental strains, reciprocal F₁ hybrids, F₂, B₁, and B₂ generations, the number and duration of spikewave discharges were determined. One hundred percent of the F₁ animals showed spike-wave discharges, while the percentages for the F₂, B₁ and B₂ generations were 79, 95, and 37%, respectively. These results suggest that the occurrence of spike-wave discharges is determined by one gene with a dominant mode of inheritance. Cavalli's least-squares fitting procedure suggested different genetic models for the two parameters (number and duration) during the two periods (dark and light). These results confirm our previous findings (Peeterset al., Behav. Genet. 20, 453–460, 1990) that a number of genes are involved in absence epilepsy. One dominant gene appears to determine the occurrence, however, while others manipulate the number and duration of epileptic phenomena during the two periods dark and light.To whom correspondence should be addressed.     

噻吩诺啡在人、比格犬和大鼠肝微粒体中体外代谢比较

采用体外肝微粒体孵育体系, 研究噻吩诺啡在大鼠、比格犬和人肝微粒体中酶代谢动力学及代谢产物差异。通过对噻吩诺啡浓度、微粒体蛋白含量和孵育时间等条件的考察优化噻吩诺啡与肝微粒体的反应体系; 应用LC-MS/MS定量检测孵育体系中的噻吩诺啡及代谢产物, 分析比较噻吩诺啡在3种肝微粒体中代谢产物种类和生成量的差异, 计算并比较相应的动力学参数。噻吩诺啡在人肝微粒体中代谢转化最慢, 其相应的动力学参数K_m = (4.00 ± 0.59) µmol·L⁻¹、V_max = (0.21 ± 0.06) µmol·L⁻¹·min⁻¹、T_1/2 = (223 ± 6.10) min、CL_int = (117 ± 3.19) mL·min⁻¹·kg⁻¹; 比格犬和大鼠肝微粒体中相应的参数K_m、V_max、T_1/2和CL_int分别为 (3.57 ± 0.69) 和 (3.28 ± 0.50) µmol·L⁻¹、(0.18 ± 0.04) 和 (0.14 ± 0.04) µmol·L⁻¹·min⁻¹、(244 ± 1.21) 和 (70.7 ± 1.05) min、(213 ± 1.06) 和    (527 ± 7.79) mL·min⁻¹·kg⁻¹。在3个种属肝微粒体中均观察到噻吩诺啡的6个I相代谢产物, 但6个产物的相对生成百分比在不同种属肝微粒体中有一定差异。实验结果表明, 噻吩诺啡在体外人、比格犬和大鼠肝微粒体中主要的I相代谢途径相同, 但是代谢产物的生成量及噻吩诺啡的代谢动力学性质存在着一定的差异。     

Why is it Challenging to Predict Intestinal Drug Absorption and Oral Bioavailability in Human Using Rat Model

Purpose To study the correlation of intestinal absorption for drugs with various absorption routes between human and rat, and to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms for the similarity in drug intestinal absorption and the differences in oral bioavailability between human and rat.Materials and Methods The intestinal permeabilities of 14 drugs and three drug-like compounds with different absorption mechanisms in rat and human jejunum were determined by in situ intestinal perfusion. A total of 48 drugs were selected for oral bioavailability comparison. Expression profiles of transporters and metabolizing enzymes in both rat and human intestines (duodenum and colon) were measured using GeneChip analysis.Results No correlation (r ² = 0.29) was found in oral drug bioavailability between rat and human, while a correlation (r ² = 0.8) was observed for drug intestinal permeability with both carrier-mediated absorption and passive diffusion mechanisms between human and rat small intestine. Moderate correlation (with r ² > 0.56) was also found for the expression levels of transporters in the duodenum of human and rat, which provides the molecular mechanisms for the similarity and correlation of drug absorption between two species. In contrast, no correlation was found for the expressions of metabolizing enzymes between rat and human intestine, which indicates the difference in drug metabolism and oral bioavailability in two species. Detailed analysis indicates that many transporters (such as PepT1, SGLT-1, GLUT5, MRP2, NT2, and high affinity glutamate transporter) share similar expression levels in both human and rat with regional dependent expression patterns, which have high expression in the small intestine and low expression in the colon. However, discrepancy was also observed for several other transporters (such as MDR1, MRP3, GLUT1, and GLUT3) in both the duodenum and colon of human and rat. In addition, the expressions of metabolizing enzymes (CYP3A4/CYP3A9 and UDPG) showed 12 to 193-fold difference between human and rat intestine with distinct regional dependent expression patterns.Conclusions The data indicate that rat and human show similar drug intestinal absorption profiles and similar transporter expression patterns in the small intestine, while the two species exhibit distinct expression levels and patterns for metabolizing enzymes in the intestine. Therefore, a rat model can be used to predict oral drug absorption in the small intestine of human, but not to predict drug metabolism or oral bioavailability in human.     

大额牛与德宏高峰牛种间杂交的亲子鉴定初报

利用7个微卫星座位对大额牛(Bos frontalis)与德宏高峰牛(Bos taurus)种间杂交后代进行微卫星座位分型,结果7个微卫星位点在亲子关系中遵循经典的孟德尔遗传规律,呈共显性遗传,证实了大额牛与德宏高峰牛种间杂交的可行性.     

Correlation of Plasma Clearance of 54 Extensively Metabolized Drugs Between Humans and Rats: Mean Allometric Coefficient of 0.66

Purpose. To evaluate the distribution of allometric exponents for relationship of total plasma clearance of 54 extensively metabolized drugs, with wide-ranging linear clearance values, between humans and rats, to provide a rationale for the observed data, and to discuss potential significance of the findings. Methods. Human and rat plasma clearance values of 54 drugs with markedly different physicochemical properties were obtained from the literature. Standard allometric analysis was performed for each drug using both rat and human data. Unbound vs. total plasma clearances were obtained for 15 out of 54 drugs and their correlations between humans and rats were compared. Results. The mean ± SD of the allometric exponent for the 54 drugs studied is 0.660 ± 0.190. The median clearance ratio based on unit body weight is 7.41 and the median exponent is 0.645. Excluding two outliers the correlation coefficient of plasma clearance between humans and rats was 0.745 (p < 0.0001). For the 15 drugs, use of unbound plasma clearance approach seems to significantly improve the correlation coefficient compared to total plasma clearance (0.940 vs. 0.841). Conclusions. The present study indicates that on average, humans and rats may eliminate extensively metabolized drugs at a rate similar to that expected from the allometric or body surface area relationship of basal metabolic rate between the two species. A simple statistical distribution hypothesis is used to rationalize the species difference in plasma drug clearance. Rat may serve as an useful animal model to predict (unbound) plasma clearance of drugs in humans.